Is Freudian theory falsifiable (by Popper's criteria) Essay

Is Freudian theory falsifiable (by Popper's criteria) - Essay Example The matter is the fact that at those times there was a strong belief that works of these scientists are absolutely scientific. But Popper had different point of view. According to him Einstein’s theory was distinguished from theories of Freud, Adler and Marx due to its openness to be falsifiable, i.e. to criticism. Popper considered that Freud, Marx, and Adler gave some true and important issues, despite he thought their theories to be unscientific. In general our intellectual culture has been largely influenced by Popper’s criticism of Freudian theory and his castigation of inductivism. Thus, Frederick Crews, the literary critic states that Popper has proved his own denial of Freudian explanations and Peter Medawar, biologists, has approved both of Karl Popper’s complaints with gusto. In 1935 in the philosophical analysis of the scientific method Karl Popper represented his famous criterion of falsifiability, which is now considered to be an important concept of science as well as of philosophy of science. According to this criterion any theory, proposition or hypothesis can be considered â€Å"scientific† only when it is falsifiable. Thus, Popper’s criterion is necessary but not sufficient for evaluation of any ideas claiming to be scientific (Sokal, 1998). Any theory satisfies Popper’s criterion (i.e. it is falsifiable and therefore scientific) in the event that there is a methodological opportunity to refute it by setting one or another experiment, even if such an experiment has not yet been delivered. According to this criterion, a statement, or system of statements contain information about the empirical world only if it is able to come into collision with the experience, or more accurately - if it can be systematically checked, that is subjected to (according to some â€Å"methodological solutions†) checks, which may result in its denial. In other words, according to Popper's criterion, a scientific theory cannot be fundamentally unassailable. Thus, according to this doctrine, the problem of demarcation (i.e. separation of scientific knowledge from the unscientific) is solved. Popper called this unequal "power" and role in the verification of meaning and truth of scientific theories inherent in confirming and refuting factors â€Å"cognitive asymmetry†. Based on this â€Å"asymmetry† Popper proclaimed the replacement of the â€Å"principle of verification† (i.e. a positive or confirmed check), used by logical empiricists, with the principle of â€Å"falsification† (that is the principle of reliable denial). It means that the verification of scientific essence, and then of the truth of scientific theories must be carried out not through their confirmation, but mainly (or exclusively) through their denial. Popper's criterion requires that a theory or hypothesis should not be fundamentally unassailable. According to Popper a theory cannot be considered scient ific only on the grounds that there is one, several or infinitely many experiments, confirming it. Since almost any theory, formed on the basis of at least some of the experimental data, permits the conducting of a large number of supporting experiments, the existence of confirmation cannot be considered a token of scientific theory. According to Popper, theories differ with respect to the possibility of setting up an experiment able, at least in principle, give a

Tax Deal (Current Event) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tax Deal (Current Event) - Essay Example e final, concluding section of the paper will offer an overview of the situation and consider the merits of the various positions and the probable outcome. In simplest terms the current debate revolves around the Presidents campaign promise to not extend significant changes to personal income tax rules that were introduced under President George W. Bush. Under President Bush two significant bills reducing personal income taxes were introduced: The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. The chart on the following page outlines the impact of these two tax bills on personal tax levels. In simplest terms the bills lowered the personal income tax rate on the lowest level of income (below USD 7,150) and on the highest levels (USD 29,050). Those earning between USD 7,150 and 29,050 remained constant. However, as is often the case with government legislation the devil is in the details. The bills also changed the dollar figures around the highest tax brackets pushing them upwards slightly. For example, in 2000 one entered the highest tax bracket if they earned USD 288, 351 but by 2003 that number had increased to USD 311,951. Therefore a person who earned USD 300,000 in both those years was paying 39.6% in 2000 but only 33% in 2003. (â€Å"Federal Tax Brackets†) Also, under President Bush significant changes in other aspects of personal income, notably on capital gains. Capital gains tax is levied on the market value received on sale of an asset beyond its book value or purchase price. If an asset is bought for $50 and sold for $75, the realized capital gain (profit) is $25. Capital gains generally increase as ones personal wealth increases as it implies having personal wealth to invest. A person working in a minimal wage job rarely has large sums to invest. The exact opposite is true of a person who has a substantial income. Therefore, as a general rule, decreases in the capital gains

Social network security is seriously threatened Dissertation

Social network security is seriously threatened - Dissertation Example The paper has gone to an inch to determine the level of importance is given to the privacy setting and its resultant security and safety. The results revealed that users of SNS, though considers that matter significantly important; however, have limited information about the dimensions from where these privacy fences are broken. The paper also concludes that despite understanding of a considerable level about the lacking strength of privacy setting of the SNS, the users still post information as established by Lee, Park, and Kim (2013).Furthermore, users of SNS have dominant view to stop limit the usage of SNS for sharing private information once the understanding of the malware is developed. TABLE OF CONTENTS WOULD SOCIAL NETWORK INTERCONNECTION THREATEN USER’S PRIVACY? 1 ABSTRACT 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 1. INTRODUCTION 5 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 8 2.5. CHALLENGE 14 3. METHODOLOGY 16 4. DATA ANALYSIS 19 6. LIST OF REFERENCES 32 7. APPENDIX 37 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background Social media has taken the driven seat in the current era of technology. ... here users are more deeply connected than ever before without any limitations, in most cases, as depicted below: (Merrill et al., 2011) In addition to the array of benefits that social media offers to range of users including individual, public figures as well as businesses, social media is also complimented with the risks and issues. Kirkpatrick (2011) in the book, The facebook Effect, has noted that social media has changed the entire phenomenon of interaction. The impact of social media has gone to an extent that it is driving the character of political figure as well as the democratic process. For instance, the presidential campaign of Obama employed data mining, analytics and reporting program under the leadership of Rayid Ghani, a Pakistani former employee of Chicago’s Accenture Technology Labs which in turn resulted in Obama wining an election with head to head margin (Imam, 2013). The analytical and data mining tools employed in the campaign for Obama and other individ ual and businesses at one end benefits the user but at the same time it also threatens risk to the privacy of the account holders of social networking sites (SNS). Lee, Park, and Kim (2013) claim that SNS users have awareness of the security, privacy and other types of risks associated with SNS but sharing of contextual information on SNS is more induced by the perceived benefits from these sites. 1.2. Aims and Objectives Having mentioned the risks that are associated with the SNS sites, the paper herein aims to develop the review of the awareness level about the intensity of the risks from SNS interconnection. Therefore, the research has set forth the following objectives for the study: Exploring the types of the risks that are associated with the interconnection of the Social Networking Sites.

How to Develop Leadership Skills Essay Example for Free

How to Develop Leadership Skills Essay Malaysia is one of the countries that practice democratic system. Many countries around the world practice democratic system such as United States, India, South Africa, Singapore, Australia, Canada, Japan and United Kingdom. In â€Å"Democratic Style,† (2008), the democratic leadership style means encouraging people to share their ideas, and then collect all the available information into the best possible decision. This leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making with the group members. This style of leadership includes discussion and sharing of ideas and encouragement of people to feel good about their involvement. The democratic leadership style is very open and collegial style of running a team. Leaders who practices democratic style can organize company effectively. To be a good leader, there are three ways to develop leadership skills in an organization through democratic style such as a leader should practice positive attitude, listen to other people’s opinions and always motivate the subordinates. Firstly, a leader should practice positive attitude in the workplace. According to Robert Christopher (2007), there are some positive attitudes that someone should practice as a leader. For example, he has to have an open mind. As an example, he would not easily punish the employees for their mistakes until he knows the reason. To explain more, one staff who comes late due to emergency care would not be punished. Therefore, a good leader should investigate first before make a decision. Another point is a good leader should also have a wisdom and confidence. Thus, he can make a good decision to lead the organization without doubts. For example, he must select which type of investment the company should choose. Therefore, he must be confidence to make this important decision to ensure the company’s success. In addition, a good leader should be a positive role model to subordinates. Besides, a leader as a role model in an organization can affect the attitude and give a positive impact to subordinates. The subordinates will follow the attitude that their leader shows to them. Secondly, in â€Å"3Cs of Exemplary Leadership,† (2012), a leader should listen to other people’s opinions because it is one of the criteria of a democratic leadership. In that case, a thoughtful leader should listen and accept the opinions of subordinates in order to share ideas. When the leader listens to employees’ opinion, they will appreciate more and feel like they are parts of team. In this way, a leader would gain more respect by subordinates. A good leader should not ignore and must respect the subordinates’ ideas because they will be hurt and think a leader is selfless. In addition, a leader should accept the opinions from subordinates and evaluate it with the committee members. In that case, having a committee member is important in order to make justful decision. This can be done through an evaluation form, suggestion box, and doing informal meeting every week. Moreover, a leader should not be too sensitive and he needs not only to listen to other people’s ideas but also their complaints. Therefore, a problem may be solved through their complaints. He must not be emotional; instead he should be wise to make a decision. Therefore, to be democratic leaders, they must to accept any opinion of subordinates to improve their leadership skills. Finally, to be a good motivator through the democratic style, a leader should motivate the subordinates. All employees must be motivated to work for a company or organization in doing daily tasks. If no motivation is present in an employee, their quality of work will deteriorate. According to Robert Christopher (2007), a leader should provide motivation to encourage the subordinates to get into action. For example, a leader has to act professionally to help employees complete the task given by carefully organize and sequence the components of each task to be assigned for employees. One main responsibility in educating employees is to make instructions as clear and precise as possible. A leader should not get angry easily because employees need to train. Therefore, a leader must understand employees situation. Besides that, a good leader should reward their subordinates for their outstanding performances for they may establish certain reward. Rewards can be in the form of token or gift, be one-time bonuses or pay increments. In this way, employees will be appreciated and feel more motivated to work better. So, if good leaders want their employees to be good in all work, they must motivate their employees to achieve organizational excellence through the democratic leadership style. In conclusion, democratic style is one of the ways for an organization to succeed. The democratic style will enable the leader to maintain relationship with the subordinates. This leadership style is one of the most effective and it has created advanced productivity, better contributions from subordinates and boost group morale (Woods, 2010). It can also lead to betters ideas and creative solutions to certain problems. The democratic style train all staff in the company to communicate with each other, play a part and participate in the group’s discussion chaired by the leader. In short, a leader will be more responsible to perform his duty and lead the organization to succeed in the future through democratic style. Reference Cherry, Kendra. (Ed.). (n.d.).What is democratic leadership?.Retrieved August 1, 2012, fromhttp://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/f/democratic-leadership.htm Gill, Roger. (2006). Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Leadership styles: democratic leadership style. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2012, fromhttp://www.leadership-toolbox.com/democratic-leadership-style.html Lussier, N. Robert, Achua, F. Christopher. (2007). Effective leadership. United States: South-Western. Transformation Academy.(n.d.).3 Cs of exemplary leadership (even if youre not the boss!).Retrieved August 1, 2012, from http://www.transformationacademy.com/?p=1651

The poem The Lover by Don Patterson. :: English Literature

The poem The Lover by Don Patterson. The Lover - Don Patterson The poem "The Lover" by Don Patterson explores traditional notions of fate and romantic love. The title represents both of these ideas, as the lover is a tarot card used by fortune-tellers to tell you your fate, and "the lover" has connotations of romance. He also uses vivid imagery describes how a human is knocked down by a car, and against the odds, is brought back to life because of love. The poem has three stanzas of equal length and it has a half rhyme. The main theme is identified by how love is the strongest force on the planet. Pattersonbegins by saying, "Poor mortals with your horoscopes and blood tests." This is in such a tone, that it is suggesting that a higher being is speaking, and through references later in the poem, it seems likely that the narrator is a classic Greek god. Pattersonmentions "horoscopes" and "blood tests". These are both methods that humans try in vain to predict the future. Blood tests have connotations of illness, which becomes relevant later in the poem. "Even if the plane lands you safely, why should you not return to your home in flames or ruins, your wife absconded, the children blind and dying in their cots?" Patterson uses very emotive and powerful imagery to try to prove a point that our small lives are irrelevant in the eyes of the world. He then summarises this stanza by saying, "Only the lover walks upon the earth, careless of what fate prepares for him". This quote suggests that the lover is immune to the day-to-day harshness of the world. His word choice also effectively displays ides of immortality. It tells us that love can protect you from the perils of the world. In the second stanza, Pattersonintroduces the main incident in the poem. A car knocks down the subject. "So you step out at the lights, almost as if today you know you are the special one. The women in the windshield lifting away her frozen cry." This metaphor is very effective as it has clear connotations of time standing still and fear. Patterson is now writing on a personal basis, as before he spoke generally. He continues his biblical references when he says, "A white mask on a stick". This imagery describes Atropos, the Greek god of death (somewhat like Grim Reaper) When the time has come, they come to take to take you away. He continues the theme of the underworld by saying, "The sun leaves like a rocket; the sky goes out." Patterson's effective imagery has apocalyptic connotations. This simile compares the flash of a rocket to the brightness of the sun.

Anthropology Essays – Australopithecines and Homos

Australopithecines and HomosSection 1 4. ( a & A ; B ) At Olduvai Gorge, East Africa, severalaustralopithecinesandgay, such asAustralopithecus Boisei( sometimesParanthropus Boisei) andHomosexual Habilis( big ) may hold coexisted ( Leakey 1994, 24-27, 29 ) .Australopithecus Boiseiis distinguished by outstanding sagittal crests on the top and dorsum of the skull and a long, wide and rather level ‘dished’ face with big grinders ( Wood 1992, 236 ) .Homosexual Habilis( big ) besides has a big level face with a little forehead ridge, though without the broad, dished’ visual aspect and crests ofAustralopithecus Boisei( Stringer 1992, 242 & A ; 251 ) . It besides had a robust jaw and big narrow grinders. The robust jaws and big grinders of bothAustralopithecus BoiseiandHomosexual Habilissuggest that the diets of both were chiefly vegetable. It is possible that earlyHomosexual Habilis, a tool shaper, besides hunted or scavenged for meat. Cut Markss from tools found on carnal castanetss from Olduvai show that meat was being cut from the bone bygayaround 1.8 million old ages ago ( Potts 1992, 331 ) . However, the tools from the earlier Oldowan industry can non steadfastly be associated with either genus Australopithecus orgay, though Leakey favours the latter because of the ulterior association ( 1994, 41 ) . Stanford cautions that we remember that even one species may expose a assortment of behaviors ( 2001, 25 ) . 5. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) The earliest illustrations of Acheulean engineering day of the month to 1.5/4 million old ages ago and are associated withHomo ErectusLeakey 1994, 93 ; Gowlett 1992b, 353 ) . The handaxe ( or biface ) is associated with the development of a long axis linked to a ‘walnut’ form and illustrations may be symmetrical through a different planes and subdivisions ( Gowlett 1992a, 343 ) . Apart from usage as the eponymic handaxe, Acheulean tools were used as choppers and choices – some twelve implements have been identified ( Gowlett 1992b, 354 ; Leakey 1994, 93 ) . In eastern and south Asia discoveries ofHomo Erectushold non yielded Acheulean tools, perchance due to the presence of splintered bamboo rendering rock engineering redundant ( Gowlett 1992b, 351 ) . Besides, we might anticipate variableness in behavior over a broad, or even rather narrow, geographic country ( Stanford 2001, 25 ) . 6. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) The Clovis people could hold reached America, possibly via a land span, as portion of a series of three migrations or motions of population from northern Asia, suggested by a assortment of grounds from linguistics, tooth analysis and genetic sciences ( Renfrew & A ; Bahn 1996, 438 ) . Dates for the motions are debatable and vary from up to 42,000-21,000 old ages ago for the earliest, 20,000 old ages ago for the 2nd and 16,000-5000 old ages ago for the last pre-Columbian motion. Martin had suggested they were the first civilization to come in the Americas ( 1973 ) . Evidence from sites such as Murray Springs, Arizona, reveal Clovis civilization artifacts association with macrofauna that subsequently became nonextant ( Haynes 1984 ) . A assortment of tools characterise the Clovis civilization, in peculiar bifacially worked and fluted missile points ( Gowlett 1992b, 359 ) . Such tools are characteristically those of huntsmans. Section 2 7. ( a, B & A ; degree Celsiuss ) Table 1. Showing Relative day of the months, encephalon sizes and encephalon construction of assorted species of hominid and hominoid ( after Deacon 1992, 116-7 ; Stringer 1992, 251 ; Wood 1992, 236 ) .SpeciessDates ( approximative old ages ago )Brain size ( cm3 )Brain constructionProconsul23-15 millionN/AN/AAustralopithecus Afarensis4-2.5 million400-500Broca’s country non presentHomosexual Habilis ( big )2.4-1.6 million600-800Broca’s country nowadaysHomo Erectus1.8-0.3 million750-1250Broca’s country nowadaysHomosexual Sapiens Neanderthalensis150,000-30,0001200-1750Broca’s country nowadaysHomosexual Sapiens ( early modern )130,000-60,0001200-1700Broca’s country nowadaysChimpanzeePresent400Area homologous to Broca’s countryTable 1 shows that early hominoids such asAustralopithecus Afarensishad comparable and somewhat larger encephalons than modern Pan troglodytess ( 400-500cm3 ) , although Broca’s linguistic communication country seems non to hold been present. Broca’s country was present in the larger encephalons ( 600-800cm3 ) ofHomosexual Habilis( big ) and in subsequentlygayspecies up to and includingmodern Homo Sapiens Sapiens. The encephalon size ofgayspecies has increased over clip, top outing at thatof Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensisat 1200-1750cm3, similar to that ofHomosexual Sapiens Sapienswith a scope of 1200-1700cm3. From the informations tabled above, it is non possible to reason that encephalization was a cardinal event in human development although worlds are without uncertainty the most encephalized species on Earth with a encephalon three times bigger than that of a similar sized ape ( Deacon 1992, 116 ; Curtis et Al 2001, 167 ) . The relationship between intelligence and encephalon size is non simple and the presence of Broca’s country does non turn out linguistic communication usage. Chimpanzees are sociable, learn and Teach, usage tools and show complex behavior, even capable of being trained in sign-language yet their encephalons are relatively little. Worlds besides display great assortment in their behavior and it is non ever clear that they are better adapted to life than less encephalized species, which calls into inquiry the nature and cogency of such comparings. Besides really important are the recent finds on Flores, which suggest that a tool and fire utilizinggayspecies we ighing merely 55 lbs and with a encephalon three times smaller than modern worlds evolved fromHomo Erectus( Morwood et al. 2005 ) . Section 3 8. ( a, B, degree Celsius & A ; vitamin D ) Multiregionalists, such as Wolpoff and Thorne have observed continuity, despite spreads, fromHomo Erectusin Java to modern Aboriginal Australians ( Curtis et al. 2001, 198 ) . The SangiranHomo Erectuswas dated at 700,000 old ages old, the skulls from Ngandong to between 400,000-100,000 old ages old and the Australian Mungo people to 24,000 old ages old. Wolpoff and Thorne have observed anatomical continuity in the cranial characteristics, known as the ‘mark of ancient Java’ . The NgandongHomo Erectusbraincases have been redated from 400,000-100,000 to 50,000-30,000 old ages old by negatron spin resonance ( ESR ) dating and uranium series dating ( U-series dating ) ( Curtis et al. 2001, 221 ) . Dates achieved by gamma beam dating have non been published. The Mungo remains have been diversely dated, originally at 24,000 old ages old so to about 62,000 in 1999, and most late utilizing optically exciting luminescence, both the Mungo Lady and Man were redated once more to 40,000 old ages old ( Bowler et al. 2003 ) . The new day of the months for the Ngandong braincase and the Mungo people, if right, suggest thatHomosexual SapiensandHomo Erectuscoexisted in south east Asia. While ab initio an uncomfortable decision for many, the assorted dating techniques do look to confirm one another, and recent discoveries ofHomo Floresiensismay supply further cogent evidence of diverseness. The redating of the Mungo people has led to the proposal that modernHomosexual Sapiensdispersed eastward from Africa, before come ining Europe, therefore retaining the ‘Out of Africa’ place ( Gore 2000, 97 ) . Thorne, commented that the redating had no impact on multiregionalism, Wolpoff adding that from 2 million old ages ago there was merely one human species ( Curtis et al. 2001, 229 ) . Whatever theoretical attack one has to dispersal, it seems indispensable to recognize the diverseness and coexistence of communities ofHomosexual. Mentions Bowler, J.M. , Johnston, H. , Olley, J. Prescott, J. Roberts, R. Shawcross, W. and Spooner, N. 2003. New ages for human business and climatic alteration at Lake Mungo, Australia.Nature421 ( February ) 837-40.Curtis, G.H. , Swisher III, C.C. and Lewin, R. 2001.Java Man. London: Little, Brown & A ; Co.Deacon, T.W. 1992. The human encephalon. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 115-123.Gore, R. 2000. Peoples Like Us.National GeographicVol.198/1 ( July ) , 90-117.Gowlett, J.A.J. 1992a. Early human mental abilities. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 341-345.Gowlett, J.A.J. 1992b. Tools – the Palaeolithic record. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 350-360.Haynes, C.V. 1984. Stratigraphy and Late Pleistocene Extinction in the United States . In Martin, P.S. and Klein, R.G. ( eds. ) . 1984.Quaternate Extinctions. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 345-353.Jones, S. , Martin, R. and Pilbeam, D. ( explosive detection systems. ) 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Leakey, R. 1994.The Origin of Humankind. London: Weidenfeld & A ; Nicolson.Martin, P.S. 1973. The find of America.Science179, 969-74.Morwood, M. , Sutikna, T. and Roberts, R. 2005. World of the Small People.National GeographicVol.207/4 ( April ) , 2-15.Potts, R. 1992. The hominian manner of life. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 325-334.Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. 1996.Archaeology, Theories, Methods and Practice. London: Thames & A ; Hudson.Stanford, C.B. 2001.The Hunting Apes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Stringer, C.B. 1992. Development of australopithecines. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedi a of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 241-254.Wood, B.A. 1992. Development of early worlds. In Jones et Al. ( eds. ) . 1992.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 231-240.

Do new dependency theories overcome the weaknesses of classical dependency theories?

IntroductionOver the century’s, economic development theorist have put forward various models for explaining the â€Å"underdeveloped-ness† of countries in the Third World. However, with sociological theory comes criticisms and despite lasting a great deal of time in the framework of the international sphere, classical dependency has been subjected to a barrage of criticism on theoretical, empirical, methodological, and stylistic grounds. In this essay, it is my aim to analyse the criticism put forwards while simultaneously determining whether or not the modification by new dependency theorists have overcome these flaws.Before doing so we must firstly acquaint ourselves with the origins of the dependency theory, first formulated in the late 1950s under the guidance of the Director of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, Raul Prebisch. The second part of this essay will provide an analytic account of Paul Baran and Andre Gunder Frank’s classic al studies of dependency theory, looking at their general perspectives and adaptation to Marxism.Once this has been achieve, the third and final part of this essay aims to draw out the criticism that have been put forward on classical dependency studies while looking at new dependency theorist; Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Stephan M. Haggard and Thomas B. Gold perspectives. This will allow me to conclude how sophisticated new dependency studies are in overcoming the flaws of the classical dependency studies. Origins of Dependency Theories Given the many interpretations given to dependency, how can one capture the concept of dependency in a concise manner?Dos Santos, defines it as â€Å"a historical condition that shapes a certain structure of the world economy such that it favours some countries to the detriment of others, and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economies†. (SO, A, Y. 1990: 99) Whereas liberals (mainstream economists) define underdevelopment as a condition in which countries find themselves in, depedentistas see it as a process in which less developed nations are trapped because of the relationship between the developed and underdeveloped countries in the world economy. (SANCHEZ, O.  2003)However, it can be agreed that dependency theory is not a socioeconomic relation that just â€Å"occurs†, it is developed historically through capitalism’s power-relations between the first world and the third world. In order to understand dependency theory, we first need to place the model in historical context by examining its origins. Emerging in the late 1940’s against the development theory of modernization which examined development from the point of view of the United States and other Western Countries, The Dependency Theory took the approach of viewing development from a Third World perspective.According to Blomsorm and Hettne, the dependency theory represents the â€Å"voices from the periphery†. (Blomsorm, M, Hettne, B. 1984) Dependency theory arose out of central and south America in the 1960s and 1970s, but was part of a larger movement that was asking a lot of questions about international relations at the time. One of those questions was â€Å"why are so many countries not developing? † The traditional answer to this question was that these countries are not perusing the right economic policies or the governments are authoritarian or corrupt.However, dependency theorists wanted to find out if that was all there was to it, which lead them to argue that countries were not developing around the world due to international division of labour, class distinction and global capitalism. The diagram above (Wikimedia commons, 2008) is a clear example of what dependency theorist meant when they argue that there are a number of different kinds of states in the world which all form a different funtion in the world’s economy. First you have the core states are the most richest and powerful (e.g Europe and North America).These states dominate in terms of industry and technology and as a result the semi-periphey and periphery states (e. g Latin America and South Africa), who are characterised by resource extraction economy, argiculture production and providing cheap labour, serve the economic intrest of the richest countires. Dependency theory became popular as a criticism of modernization theory (also known as development theory) which seemed to be failing due to the continued widespread poverty of large parts of the world.This may be because modernisation theory only offers an â€Å"internal† explanation of Third world development. For example, it assumes that there is something wrong inside Third world countries- such as traditional culture, overpopulation, little investment, or lack of achievement motivation- and this is why Third world countries are backward and stagnant. (So, A, Y. 1990: 92) The theory believes in order for third world countries to reach modernity they need to look up to western countries as mentors and follow western paths of development.However, dependency theorists argue that this is impossible to do so because of colonialism. â€Å"The colonial experience has totally restructured Third world countries and has drastically altered their paths of development† (So, A, Y. 1990. :96) Looking back at liberal reformer Prebisch and the ECLA strategy of protectionism and industrialization, he believed, in order to put an end to all problems of development, poorer countries should embark on programs of import substitution so that they need not purchase the manufactured products from the richer countries.The poorer countries would still sell their primary products on the world market, but their foreign exchange reserves would not be used to purchase their manufactures from abroad. (Larrain, J, 1989:110) However, this was not as straight forward as anticipated, because if a poorer nation makes any a ttempt to resist against the power of the rich nations they may have to face military force or economic sanctions.â€Å"Developed nations actively keep developing nations in a subservient position, often through economic force by instituting sanctions, or by proscribing free trade policies attached to loans granted by the World Bank or International Monetary Fund†. (WiseGeek, 2003) Despite the failure of Prebisch international trade theory, it is undoubtable that it provided the dependency theory with the support that it needed, and showed some semblance of what dependence means in this type of economic system. (Moses, D, 2012)In a nutshell, Development and Underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. Wealthy nations of the world need a peripheral group of poorer states in order to remain wealthy. Using a variety of political economic interventions as well as media, education systems and interventional sporting events wealthy nations control poorer nations, making them de pendent. And it is in their best interest to keep the poorer nations poor by using Ha-Joon Chang metaphor â€Å"kicking the developing ladder away† so that they can continue to steal the poor’s natural wealth and exploit their workers.Latin America was asked to produce food, raw materials for the great industrial center, and in return, Latin America would receive industrial goods from these centers. (So, A, Y. 1990:93) Classical Dependency Theory In this next section we will examine Neo-Marxist theorist’s Paul Baran (1910–1964) and Andre Gunder Frank’s (1929–2005) who developed dependency theory from Marxian analysis.â€Å"The dependency theory is rooted in a Marxism analysis of the global economy and as a direct challenge to the free market economic policies of the post-War era† (Ferraro, V, 2008) In The Communist Manifesto, Marx argued within the capitalist economy the bourgeoisie mercilessly exploited the proletariat. He recognised that the work carried out by the proletariat created great wealth for the capitalist. The products created in the factory (the material outcome of the workers' labour) were sold for more than the value of the labour itself i. e. more than the workers' wages.Like Karl Marx (1818–1883), Baran and Frank argued a similar exploitative system of stratification between countries. Usage of Marxist ideology can be seen as strength of the dependency theory as led the way to other neo-Marxist investigations of the linkage and possible reconciliation between Dependency Theory and Marxism. Paul A Baran Baran is the first author within the theory of imperialism who studies the class structures and economic processes of underdeveloped countries, but more importantly, he was the first Marxist author who puts in doubt the homogeneous conception of world capitalism.  (Larrain, J, 1989:80)Baran believed imperialism had penetrated underdeveloped countries, destroying earlier social formations and distorting their subsequent development, creating lasting conditions of dependency. Underdeveloped countries were systematically subordinated to the developed countries in the international division of labour. However, Baran was not the first to make such arguments. Traces of such views of imperialism can be found in Marxism.â€Å"if it were not for the distorting effects of imperialism, the country that is more developed industrially would have shown to the less developed the image of its own future† (Foster, J, 2007) Baran’s Political Economy of Growth argued that Third world countries were characterized by small industrial sectors and large agricultural sectors, which was not immensely profitable on world a scale. He emphasized class relations and their impact on utilization of economic surplus, as well as the distribution of power as primary barriers which prevented development.He espoused that internal conditions were the source of the major problems in under developed countries, and recommended state intervention to promote nationally controlled industrialization as a precondition for evolution of other industrial sectors. (TheDevelopmentStudent, 2010) Baran’s uses his study of India as an example of a country which would have developed much better had it not been for the surplus torn from it by Britain. In his study he traced how British colonialism contributed to the underdevelopment of India through plundering, deindustrialisation, and the uprooting of the local society.  (So, A, Y. 1990:111)Although, Baran agrees with Marx that one should not idealise India’s pre-Britain past, he maintains that ‘at the same time, I should not be overlooked that India, if left to herself, might have found in the course of time a shorter and surely less tortuous road towards a better and richer society’ (Larrain, J, 1989:86) This study can be highlighted as a powerful insight of the classical dependency theories which has directed researchers to examine the process by which foreign domination had shaped the development of Third World countries.  (So, A, Y. 1990:129)Overall, the work of Paul Baran can be considered a very important landmark in the refurbishing of the theory of imperialism after the Second World War. He introduced such crucial changes to it that it is possible to argue that his contribution is the hinge which joins or articulate the theory of imperialism with, and marks the beginning of dependency theory. (Larrain, J, 1989:115) Andre Gunder Frank Andre Gunder Frank was one of the key figures under the Dependency Theory as well as the first to write in English.In his most influential writings ‘The Development of Underdevelopment (1969)’ Frank drew inspiration from Paul Baran, focusing upon the dependent character of peripheral Latin American economies, and was able to conceptualise Baran’s notions in terms of a capitalist world system of metropolitan and satellite areas. Metropolitans are countries that are considered as the colonizers or developed countries and the satellites on the other hand are the colonies and considered underdeveloped countries.Satellites supply cheap primary commodities to the rich countries that then use the raw materials to produce specialized good, and then send them back to the satellites for profit. Frank argues that this metropolished-satellite relationship is only in existence to serve the â€Å"interests of the metropoles which take advantage of this global, national, and local structure to promote their own development and the enrichment of their ruling classes† (Moses, D, 2012.)He argues that the reason why LDCs are getting poorer is because the exploitation it experiences from the DCs such as extracting raw materials from the LDCs while the DCs manufacture, deliver and sell the final product to LDCs with a price hitting the ceiling. In his famous writing entitled as Dependency theory claims that the r elation of imperialism and domination trapped poor nations at the bottom of the global economy.  (Larrain, J, 1989:115)Frank purposed four hypotheses, one being â€Å"the satellites experience their greatest economic development and especially their most classically capitalist industrial development if and when their ties to their metropolis are weakest† (So, A, Y. 1990:98) Therefore, his solution to the problem was that Third world countries â€Å"de-link† themselves from the world market, allowing them the opportunity to develop instead of distributing their own resources to the metropoles.However, as stated previous, due to military force or economic sanctions this may not be possible. By escalating Baran’s views and adapting them to the analysis of the Latin American situation, Frank’s idea that capitalism expanded from Europe and managed to incorporate the whole world in a single international system, quickly became well known all over the academic world and gave intellectual currency to dependency theory.Critique of classical dependency studies and modification by new dependency theorist The dependency perspective seems to have been particularly popular during the 1960s, but based on the classical dependency theories outlined above, it has since lost some of its attraction and has been the subject of a great deal of criticism since the 1970s. Firstly, it can be claimed that dependency theory itself was betrayed by the very formulation of its name. Many critics argue that it is not a theory, but can more accurately be conceived of as an approach to the study of underdevelopment.In fact, new dependency theorists such as Cardoso objected to the term ‘theory' to describe it. He believed it is an overarching framework within which one might formulate specific hypotheses/theories, a ‘methodology for the analysis of concrete situations of dependency. ‘ It did not predict determinate, discrete outcomes. Rather, it sought to provide a new perspective from which to examine the problematique of economic backwardness. (Cardoso, F, H. 1977:15) For many social scientists the methodological faults of the approach were too obvious to ignore.As stated earlier, the dependency theory arose as a critique of the modernisation theory. However, the modernisation school fought back, characterising the dependency perspective as a propaganda fragment of Marxist revolutionary ideology. Instead of providing a scientific analysis of what has actually happened in third world countries, the concept of dependency has become an all-purpose explanation for everything that is wrong with third world countries (So, A, Y. 1990:131) Another methodological criticism was that classical theorist Baran and Frank committed a major error of treating all peripheral areas as if they were the same.Fernando, H, Cardoso is usually singled out as the key figure of the new dependency studies. Unlike the general analysis of the classica l dependency school, Cardosos methodology is â€Å"historical-structural†. (So, A, Y. 1990:135) Therefore, he paid more attention to historically specific situations of dependency than classical theorist Baran and Frank. In this work, Cardoso pointed out that the shift from the Brazilian populist regime to military regime was represented as the pursuing of a new model of â€Å"associated-dependent development† in Brazil.He added that there were many new activities, which has been done by military regime in Brazil. Goertzel (1999) suggests that Cardoso’s success: ‘†¦ has come not because he has had a better theory but because he has always kept one question at the center of his thinking: What will happen if society selects one course of action over another? To answer this question, he has focused on the sociology of the historical conjuncture rather than on general theory†¦ ’ (Goertzel, T.  1999:182)However, Cardoso work too received much criticism for his esoteric style of writing. One scholar, assessing Cardoso and Faletto's Dependency and Development, decries the authors' â€Å"ornately Hegelian style† which is held to be partly responsible for the â€Å"confusing and even contradictory† message of dependency theory (Staniland, M. 1985:134). However, Cardoso himself admitted that â€Å"if there have been so many distortions in the consumption [of dependency theory], it is because the original production was not clear regarding several points† (Cardoso, F, H.1977, 17).Dependency theorist overemphasised the factor of external conditions, and neglected the role of internal dynamics such as class conflicts and the state. Petra’s (1982) indicated that â€Å"to conceptualise the issues of the Third World in terms of dependency is to lose sight of the most decisive processes class formation and social relations which beget change and the particular configurations of social forces which emerg e on a world scale†. (Petras, J.  1982:148)New dependency theorist Cardoso overcame this weakness by focusing on the internal structures of dependency. According to Alvin Y. So â€Å"Cardoso is more interested in analysing the socio-political aspect of dependency, especially class struggles, group conflict, and political movements† (So, A, Y. 1990:136) Classical dependency theorists have become subject to criticised on policy implication. The dependency perspective emphasizes the harmful effects of colonialism and international division of labor.But in fact, the success of countries such as India, south Korea and Taiwan have proven this idea wrong, especially Baran’s study on colonialism who once believed India moved backwards, from a relatively advanced industrial nation to a backward agricultural nation with the belief that it would never escape the British rule and develop again. Dependency may not lead to underdevelopment and as such periphery countries mov e from â€Å"underdevelopment† to becoming serious economic heavyweights it can be used to argue against the theory.Unlike classical dependency theorist (e. g.  Landberg) who portray the miracle of East Asian development as â€Å"manufacturing imperialism† New dependency theorist Thomas B Gold (1986) uses the concept of â€Å"dynamic dependency† in his study of Taiwan’s development. Taiwan’s starting point of development was in most ways very similar of that of Latin American countries. Like other colonial governments, the Japanese implanted a structure of dependent capitalism in Taiwan and skewed the economy to the production of two primary good (rice and sugar). Gold believed that Taiwan was undeniably restructured by Japan, it was not underdeveloped.Soon after World War 2 Taiwan broke free from the Japanese colonial rule and have attained rapid economic development. (So, A, Y. 1990:158) Therefore this rejects classical dependent theoristâ€⠄¢s assumption that this is impossible for a country to develop if it has experienced colonialism. Furthermore, determinism also burdens dependency with what Stephan Haggard has called the ‘structuralist paradox'. â€Å"The model was outlined to help identify the international constraints associated with certain development paths in order to overcome them.†However, dependency does not allow for the possibility that particular state strategies may act to reduce those international constraints. (Haggard, S. 1990: 21) In response to this new dependency theorist such as Cardoso view dependency as an open-ended process. Unlike classical predictions of unidirectional trend of underdevelopment in Third World countries He argues â€Å"that there can be development and dependency and that there exist more dynamic forms of dependence than those characterising enclave or quasi-colonial situations† (So, A, Y.  1990:137)Even though the new dependency perspective has modifie d some of the classical dependency perspective, they still share the same concept such as focus research is Third world countries, national level of analysis, and center – periphery dependency. According to Larrain â€Å"Dependency analyses share similar interests in studying the situation of peripheral capitalist countries from the point of view of the conditioning effects which external forces and structures produce on the internal structures of these countries† (Larrain, J. 1989; 112) ConclusionIn conclusion this essay has demonstrated an overall understanding of dependency theory, by originating back into the 1940s where it all began, following up to its relevance in today world. As well as the strengths of the theory, the essay has discussed the ways in which dependency has been subjected to a barrage of criticism on theoretical, empirical, methodological, and stylistic grounds. Furthermore it has researched and demonstrated how new dependency theorists have modif ied classical dependency studies in order to overcome their weaknesses.Overall I feel that Cardoso’s analysis in more sophisticated than the classical dependency studies. His work has added the lack of explanation in the classical work; it has improved on many of its criticisms and emphasizes broader explanation on what happen in the third world. I also believe that Cardoso’s research, along with Gold’s study of Taiwan’s, has shaped the direction of empirical studies in the dependency school and started a whole new investigation on dependent development in the third world.